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SOIL MECHANICS Arnold Verruijt Delft University of Technology, 2001 This is the screen version of the book SOIL MECHANICS, used at the Delft University of Technology. It can be read using the Adobe Acrobat Reader. Bookmarks are included to search for a chapter. The book is also available in Dutch, in the fi le GrondMechBoek.pdf. rcises and a summary of the material, including graphical illustrations, are contained in the fi le SOLMEX.ZIP. All software can be downloaded from the website CONTENTS 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6 2. Classifi cation ........................................................................................................................ 13 3. Particles, water, air .................................................................................................................. 19 4. Stresses in soils ...................................................................................................................... 25 5. Stresses in a layer .................................................................................................................... 31 6. Darcy’s law .......................................................................................................................... 37 7. Permeability ......................................................................................................................... 45 8. Groundwater fl ow .................................................................................................................... 49 9. Floatation ........................................................................................................................... 57 10. Flow net ............................................................................................................................. 62 11. Flow towards wells ................................................................................................................... 68 12. Stress strain relations ................................................................................................................ 72 13. Tangent-moduli ...................................................................................................................... 79 14. One-dimensional compression ........................................................................................................ 84 15. Consolidation ........................................................................................................................ 90 16. Analytical solution ................................................................................................................... 96 17. Numerical solution .................................................................................................................. 104 18. Consolidation coeffi cient ............................................................................................................ 110 2 19. Secular eff ect ....................................................................................................................... 114 20. Shear strength ...................................................................................................................... 118 21. Triaxial test ........................................................................................................................ 125 22. Shear test .......................................................................................................................... 130 23. Cell test ............................................................................................................................ 135 24. Pore pressures ...................................................................................................................... 138 25. Undrained behaviour of soils ........................................................................................................ 145 26. Stress paths ........................................................................................................................ 151 27. Elastic stresses and deations ................................................................................................... 156 28. Boussinesq .......................................................................................................................... 160 29. Newmark ........................................................................................................................... 164 30. Flamant ............................................................................................................................ 168 31. Deation of layered soil .......................................................................................................... 172 32. Lateral stresses in soils .............................................................................................................. 175 33. Rankine ............................................................................................................................ 181 34. Coulomb ........................................................................................................................... 189 35. Tables for lateral earth pressure ..................................................................................................... 195 36. Sheet pile walls ..................................................................................................................... 202 37. Blum ............................................................................................................................... 212 38. Sheet pile wall in layered soil ....................................................................................................... 219 39. Limit analysis ...................................................................................................................... 224 40. Strip footing ........................................................................................................................ 227 41. Prandtl ............................................................................................................................. 232 42. Limit theorems for frictional materials .............................................................................................. 236 43. Brinch Hansen ...................................................................................................................... 239 44. Vertical slope in cohesive material .................................................................................................. 245 3 45. Stability of infi nite slope ............................................................................................................ 249 46. Slope stability ...................................................................................................................... 255 47. Soil exploration ..................................................................................................................... 259 48. Model tests ......................................................................................................................... 266 49. Pile foundations .................................................................................................................... 272 Appendix A. Stress analysis ........................................................................................................... 278 Appendix B. Theory of elasticity ...................................................................................................... 282 Appendix C. Theory of plasticity ..................................................................................................... 292 Answers to problems ................................................................................................................... 305 Literature .............................................................................................................................. 310 Index .................................................................................................................................. 311 4 PREFACE This book is intended as the text for the introductory course of Soil Mechanics in the Department of Civil Engineering of the Delft University of Technology. It contains an introduction into the major principles and s of soil mechanics, such as the analysis of stresses, deations, and stability. The most important s of determining soil parameters, in the laboratory and in situ, are also described. Some basic principles of applied mechanics that are frequently used are presented in Appendices. The subdivision into chapters is such that one chapter can be treated in a single lecture, approximately. Comments of students and other users on the material in earlier versions of this book have been implemented in the present version, and errors have been corrected. Remaining errors are the author’s responsibility, of course, and all comments will be appreciated. An important contribution to the production of the printed edition, and to this screen edition, has been the typesetting program TEX, by Donald Knuth, in the L ATE Ximplementation by Leslie Lamport. Most of the fi gures have been constructed in L ATEX, using the PICTEXmacros. The logo was produced by Professor G. de Josselin de Jong, who played an important role in developing soil mechanics as a branch of science, and who taught me soil mechanics. Since 2001 the English version of this book has been made available on the internet, through the website . Several users, from all over the world, have been kind enough to send me their comments or their suggestions for corrections or improvements. In recent versions of the screenbook it has also been attempted to incorporate the fi gures better into the text. In this way the appearance of many pages seems to have been improved. In the latest version many small typographical errors have also been corrected. Zoetermeer, december 2003Arnold Verruijt A.Verruijtplanet.nl 5 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1The discipline Soil mechanics is the science of equilibrium and motion of soil bodies. Here soil is understood to be the weathered material in the upper layers of the earth’s crust. The non-weathered material in this crust is denoted as rock, and its mechanics is the discipline of rock mechanics. In general the diff erence between soil and rock is roughly that in soils it is possible to dig a trench with simple tools such as a spade or even by hand. In rock this is impossible, it must fi rst be splintered with heavy equipment such as a chisel, a hammer or a mechanical drilling device. The natural weathering process of rock is that under the long-term infl uence of sun, rain and wind, it degenerates into stones. This process is stimulated by fracturing of rock bodies by freezing and thawing of the water in small crevices in the rock. The coarse stones that are created in mountainous areas are transported downstream by gravity, often together with water in rivers. By internal friction the stones are gradually reduced in size, so that the material becomes gradually fi ner gravel, sand and eventually silt. In fl owing rivers the material may be deposited, the coarsest material at high velocities, but the fi ner material only at very small velocities. This means that gravel will be found in the upper reaches of a river bed, and fi ner material such as sand and silt in the lower reaches. The Netherlands is located in the lower reaches of the rivers Rhine and Meuse. In general the soil consists of weathered material, mainly sand and clay. This material has been deposited in earlier times in the delta ed by the rivers. Much fi ne material has also been deposited by fl ooding of the land by the sea and the rivers. This process of sedimentation occurs in many areas in the world, such as the deltas of the Nile and the rivers in India and China. In the Netherlands it has come to an end by preventing the rivers and the sea from fl ooding by building dikes. The process of land ing has thus been stopped, but subsidence continues, by slow tectonic movements. In order to compensate for the subsidence of the land, and sea water level rise, the dikes must gradually be raised, so that they become heavier and cause more subsidence. This process must continue forever if the country is to be maintained. People use the land to live on, and build all sort of structures houses, roads, bridges, etcetera. It is the task of the geotechnical engineer to predict the behavior of the soil as a result of these human activities. The problems that arise are, for instance, the settlement of a road or a railway under the infl uence of its own weight and the traffi c load, the margin of safety of an earth retaining structure a dike, a quay wall or a sheet pile wall, the earth pressure acting upon a tunnel or a sluice, or the allowable loads and the settlements of the foundation of a building. For all these problems soil mechanics should provide the basic knowledge. 6 Arnold Verruijt, Soil Mechanics 1. INTRODUCTION7 1.2History Figure 1.1 Landslide near Weesp, 1918. Soil mechanics has been developed in the beginning of the 20th century. The need for the analysis of the behavior of soils arose in many countries, often as a result of spectacular accidents, such as landslides and failures of founda- tions. In the Netherlands the slide of a railway embankment near Weesp, in 1918 see Figure 1.1 gave rise to the fi rst systematic investigation in the fi eld of soil mechanics, by a special commission set up by the government. Many of the basic principles of soil mechanics were well known at that time, but their combination to an engineering discipline had not yet been completed. The fi rst important contributions to soil mechanics are due to Coulomb, who published an important treatise on the failure of soils in 1776, and to Rank- ine, who published an article on the possible states of stress in soils in 1857. In 1856 Darcy published his famous work on the permeability of soils, for the water supply of the city of Dijon. The principles of the mechanics of continua, including statics and strength of materials, were also well known in the 19th century, due to the work of Newton, Cauchy, Navier and Boussi- nesq. The union of all these fundamentals to a coherent discipline had to wait until the 20th century. It may be mentioned that the committee to investigate the disaster near Weesp came to the conclusion that the water levels in the railway embankment had risen by sustained rainfall, and that the embankment’s strength was insuffi cient to withstand these high water pressures. Important pioneering contributions to the development of soil mechanics were made by Kar
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